The Bed Gap Crisis: Why Kenya Still Falls Short on Hospital Infrastructure
                     MuktShabdJournal ISSNNO:2347-3150
Footprint Representations in the Rock Art of Gawilgarh Hills and their 
Continuity in India
HimanshuMoreshwarMahajan1&PrabashSahu2
1. Research Scholar Department ofA.I.H.C. &Archaeology, RashtrasantTukadoji Maharaj 
Nagpur University, Nagpur, Maharashtra, India.
2. DepartmentofA.I.H.C.&Archaeology,RashtrasantTukadojiMaharajNagpurUniversity, Nagpur, 
Maharashtra India.
Correspondingauthor:[email protected] 
Abstract:
The Gawilgarh Hills  rockshelterin centralIndia is  renownedfor its  rich collection ofprehistoric
rock  art.Among  the  diverse  motifs  in  these  shelters,  human  footprints  stand  out  as  a  particularly
intriguingtheme.This  studydelves into the analysisofhuman footprint  engravingsdiscovered  at  the
Gawilgarh  site.  These  engravings,  often  associated  with  ritualistic  practices  and  symbolic
meanings, provide valuable insights into prehistoric communities' cultural beliefs and practices.
The paper  delves into the various forms used to create these paintings  and engravings,  their
potential, interpretations, and their connection to other global rock art traditions. By analyzing
these human footprint engravings, we can gain a deeperunderstanding of the beliefs, rituals, and
socialstructuresofthepeople whoinhabitedthisregionin thepast.Thepaperalso focusesonthe continuity
of footprints in India in ritualistic ceremonies and auspicious occasions.
Keywords:Footprint,Pictograph,PetroglyphsandPigmentedFootprint
Introduction:
Human footprint engravings are a common motif in prehistoric rock art, found across diverse
cultures and continents. From the vast landscapes of Patagonia andAustralia to the ancient sites
ofEurope,Africa,andAsia,theseengravingsofferaglimpseintothepast.Examplescanbefound  in  Patagonia,
Botswana,Yemen,  SouthAfrica,  Spain,Australia,  the  United  States  (including  the  "Hoofprint
Tradition" of the Plains Indians), northern Eurasia, Nubia, Niger, Chad, Zimbabwe, SaudiArabia,
and  the  Upper  Paleolithic  sites  of  Europe  (Lenssen-Erz  T.  et.al  2023).  Rock  art,  a
testamenttohumancreat ivi ty , i s foundwor ldwide , except in t h e Arctica n d Antarcticregio
ns.
VolumeXIV,IssueIV,APRIL/2025 PageNo:1
Some of the earliest known examples of rock art, dating back approximately 75,000 years, were
discoveredinBlombosCave,SouthAfrica.Theseancientengravings,etchedontosmallpiecesof  ochre,
showcase intricate geometric patterns (Henshilwood 2006:82).
Another intriguing motif in rock art is the human footprint, which is less common in diverse
prehistoric  cultures  and rock  art  sites.  This  suggests  the  footprint  held  significant  symbolic
meaning, representing power, vitality, and perhaps even spiritual significance.
Aboutthesite:
TheGawilgarhHills,situatedintheBetuldistrictofMadhyaPradesh,India,isauniquegeological
formationcharacterizedbyorthoquartziteoutcropsamidsttheDeccanTrapformations.Thesehills  are  renowned  for
their numerous rock shelters adorned with prehistoric petroglyphs and pictographs. The shelters are scattered
across a vast area, stretching from Bairam Ghat in Maharashtra to Salbuldi, a significant religious site. The
Gawilgarh Hills are divided into 22 groups, each named after nearby villages, shrines, or local landmarks (Fig. 1).
These  groups  includeAmbadevi,Agyadoah,Borkap,Gaimukh,Ghorpend,Kund,andmanyothers.Theshelters,
located at an altitude of 600 to 800 meters,are  accessible  from the  village  of  Dharul  in  theAtner
TehsilofBetuldistrict.Therockartfoundinthesesheltersprovidesvaluableinsightsintothelives
andb e l i e f s o f
prehistoric 
communities.
Thediverse
range
ofmotifs,
includinghumana n
d a n i m a l figures,
geometric 
patterns, and
abstract symbols,
reflects the
richculturalh e r i t a
g e o f the region.
Bystudying
theseancient
artworks,
Fig.1:Locationofthesite
researchers can gain a deeper understanding of the artistic,  religious,  and social  practices of
pastcivilizations.
FootprintsinWorldContext:
Namibia is rich in hunter-gatherer rock art from the Later StoneAge (LSA) also, Doro! Nawas
MountainsarerenownedfortheirrichcollectionofLaterStoneAgerockart.Asignificantportion  of  these
engravings depict human footprints, particularly those of children. Among the 513 engravings studied,
approximately  20%  were  identified  as  human  footprints,  with  the  majority  belongingtonon-
adults.Thesizeandmorphologicaldifferencesallowedforthedeterminationof
sex,with74identifiedasmaleand32asfemale.Notably,thereisarelativelyequalrepresentation of left and right
footprints, with 50 and 56 respectively (Lenssen-Erz T. et.al. 2023).
While human footprint  engravings are widespread,  they are particularly prominent  in certain
regions. For instance, in Europe, they are found in Scandinavian rock art, such as Leirfall in
Norway, and Valcamonica, Italy. In Africa, examples can be seen in Niger, South Africa, and
Egypt.  The  Americas  also  showcase  these  engravings,  with  sites  in  Mexico  and
Australia,includingthe  famousYalgirockart  inAustralia.Thisglobaldistribution  highlights
thesignificanceof human footprints in prehistoric art (Clottes J. et.al, 2013).
Verner (1973) suggested that the eastward orientation of foot/sandal  prints in rock art  might
symbolizeaconnectiontosolardeitiesorfuneraryrituals,representingajourneyintotheafterlife.  This
interpretation aligns with similar theories proposed by Achrati (2003, 2008), Bertilsson (2013), and Habas
(2007). Alternatively, footprints found within campsites and habitation sites may have served as markers or
memorials (Khan. 2008).
Thepresenceoffoot/sandalprintsinrockarthasbeeninterpretedinvariousways.Somescholars,
suchasKaperandWillems(2002),Nash(2005),Rahmani(1980),andVerner(1973),suggestthat these prints may
have served as markers of ownership or identity, representing either personalor tribal affiliations. Others,
like  Habas  (2007),  propose  that  they  were  symbols  of  good  luck  and
prosperity.Alternatively,theseprintsmighthavebeenassociatedwithpilgrimageorsimplyawish for a safe return,
as  suggested  by  Dunbabin  (1990),  Nevo  (1989),  and  Takacs  (2005).  It  is  also
possiblethatthelocationoftheseprintsneartraderoutes,suchastheOvdatdryriverbedinEgypt,
mighthavehadasignificantculturalorsymbolicmeaning.Someinterpretations, liketho
seby
Achrati  (2003,  2008),  suggest  a  sexual  connotation,  linking  the  foot/sandal  print  to  phallic
symbolism and fertility.
Handprints and hand stencils  are associated with most  ancient  cave art  dated in Europe,  for
example in the Chauvet Cave in France (Clottes (ed.) 2003) or El Castillo Cave in Spain. In El
Castillo, the calcite overlaying hand stencils was U-Th dated to 37,630 ± 340 (Pike et al. 2012).
As far as we know, this is the oldest date in the world obtained for deliberate hand marks.
FootprintsintheIndian RockArt:
In India, footprints are found across the country from Ladakh to Kerla and from Rajasthan to
Odisha.InIndia,andparticularlyintheregionunderstudy,age-oldtraditionsoffootprint-making are still alive
in  many  places.  In  certain  parts  of  the  State,  auspicious  footprints  are  made  on  the
occasionofDurgapuja.Moretothepoint,wehavecollectedevidenceoffootprint-makinginvery recent times -the
past  decades-  in  rock  art  sites  of  the  Madhya  Pradesh  and  Chhattisgarh  regions.
AtSalbardiwheretheyareassociatedwithnumerousengravedvulvas,theylookratherold,while  at  Putli
Karar and Churna, they could be quite recent but even there no precise date can beforwarded.
Human  footprints  have  been
discovered  in  numerousrock
sheltersacrossChhattisgarhandM
adhya Pradesh.
InChhattisgarh,
these are found in the form of
Painting as well as Engraving in
sites  such  as  Ushakothi  I,
Ushakothi  II,  Balarao,  Jogi
Gufa-2,  Thakurpara,  Singar
Pathar,
Gidhapath,andSiroliDongri(1, 2, 3,
6,  and  7).  In  Madhya Fig.2:Footprintfrom Ushakothi-I,RaigarhChhattisgarh.
Pradesh,n o t a b l e s i t e s i
nclude
Kathwar,PutliKarar,Jhinjhari-I,Churna,andGurhRewa.Thesefootprintsoffervaluableinsights 
intotheculturalpracticesandbeliefsofancientpopulations intheseregions. TheSiroliDongri6
rockshelterfeaturesstylizeddepictionsoffootprintswithvaryingnumbersoftoes,suggestingthat the number of toes
may not have carried significant symbolic meaning in these representations (Pathak-Dubey Meenakshi. 2019).
The  human footprint  engravings  at  Ushakothi  (Fig.  2)  exhibit  variations  in  size,  suggesting
depictionsofbothadultsandchildren.Someoftheseengravingsareparticularlystriking,featuring intricate details and
decorative elements within the footprint outlines.Also, a footprint print was documented from the Thakurpara
and Jogi Gufa 2.
ImportanceofFootprint
Depictionsoffootprintssaidtobelongtoenlightenedteachersanddeitiesarehighlyreveredacross  many  religious
traditions inAsia and beyond. These include the sacred footprints of the Buddha (Buddha-pāda) and
Bodhisattvas,  as  well  as  those  of  Hindu  gods  such  as  VisnM uM  (VisnM uM -pāda)
footprintofLordVishnu,particularlytheoneatGaya,isconsideredoneoftheholiest  pilgrimage  sites.  It's
believed that touching or seeing this footprint brings blessings and spiritualpurification and Śiva
(Śiva-pāda)  footprints  of  Lord  Shiva,  which  are  considered  sacred  and  possess  divine
power.Touchingorseeingthesefootprintsisbelievedtobringblessingsandspiritualpurification.  Similarly,  the
footprints of Christ, his mother Mary, and the Prophet Muhammad are also venerated. In Vīra-Śaivism,
devotees honor the wooden sandals of deceased saints, known as pādukās(Hegewald., 2019).
Before the Buddha's physical form was depicted in art, he was often represented symbolically
through his footprints and the Dharma wheel. These footprints, found across Asia, dating from
variousperiods,areoftenmarkedwithaDharmachakraatthecenterofthesole,providingavisual representation of
the  Buddha's  teachings  (http://www.edu.gov.mb.ca/k12/).Footprint  platforms
havebeendiscoveredatvarioussouthernDeccansites,includingAmaravati,Nagarjunakonda,and others. These sites
date  back  to  the  1st  centuryBCE  to  the  3rd  centuryCE.  A  notable  example  is
therecentlyexcavatedmonasterysiteofKanaganahalliinKarnataka,India,wheretwelvefootprint  platforms  and
inscriptions mentioning Ashoka were found. These findings are dated to approximately the 1st century BCE. The
importance  of  these  footprint  platforms  lies  in  their
connectiontoBuddhisttraditionsandtheirroleinpilgrimageandreligiouspractices(Huntington,  Susan  L.
2020).
Footprints,particularlyknownaspādukās,aresignificantinJainareligiouspracticesandart.They
areemployedbybothŚvetāmbaraandDigambarasects.Interestingly,depictionsoffeetareamong  the  earliest
preserved  Jaina  artistic  representations,  dating  back  to  the  first  centuries  BCE.  These
arereferredtoaspādukās,pādukā-śilas,caranaM ,caranaM -cinha,orcaranaM -pādukāsinJainatextsand  practices
(Hegewald., 2019).
Local  beliefs often associate such footprints  with divine figures or  deities.  For instance,  the
"Laxman Paha" in Odisha is believed to bear the footprints of Laxman, the brother of Rama, a
prominentfigureinHindumythology.Similarly,thelargerfootprints  foundintheBhimamandali  rock
shelter are locally attributed to Bhima, another character from the Mahabharata. Approximately 20%
of  Odisha's  rock  shelters  feature  depictions  of  human  footprints,  executed  through  various
techniques such as painting, scraping, and engraving (Garnayak et.al. 2013).
FootprintsfromGawilgarhhills
TypesofExecutionofFeet
InIndia,humanfootprintsaredepictedinrockartusingvarioustechniques,includingpetroglyphs and pictographs.
The  Gawilgarh  rock  shelters  showcase  a  range  of  techniques  for  creating  these
footprints.Theseincludedirectpaintingontotherocksurface.Additionally,engravingtechniques were employed
to  create  detailed  outlines  of  the  foot.  Filling  involves  adding  colour  or  patterns  withinthe
outline.Thesediversetechniqueshighlightthecreativityand skilloftheancientartists who left their mark
on these rock shelters
Salbardigroup
The Salbuldi group is situated to the north of the village of the same name on both banks of the
MaruRiverandcomprisesthirty-ninedecoratedsheltersthathavebothpetroglyphsandpaintings.  This was the
largest group of shelters among the Gawilgarh Hills groups. The most noteworthy engravings comprise
human feet, stick human figures, a vulva and a fox (in SBD 2 Lat. 2102 5 ’4 3 ”N; Long. 7800 0 ’5 4 ”E ) ,  b u l l s ,
s t a g  a n d  s h a l l o w  c u p u l e s  ( F i g .  3  a ,  b ) .
Fig.3a,b:EngravedFootPrintfromSalbardi-2
TheSalbardi-2rockshelterisrenownedforitsdepictionsofvulvas,bothinnaturalandpigmented  forms.
Additionally,  the  site  is  arrayed  with  ten  human  foot  engravings.  These  engravings
showcasevarioustechniques,includingsimpleoutlines,filledoutlines,andcombinationsofboth.  Some
footprints are depicted with five distinct toes, while others have four connected toes. One particularly striking
example is a footprint with four toes filled with red ochre, highlighting the artist's attention to detail. Another
intriguing  depiction  is  a  footprint  with  a  criss-cross  pattern  withinitsoutline,
accompaniedbysixcircularmotifs  (Fig.  4,5,6).These  diverse  representations  ofhuman
footprintsprovide  valuable  insights  intothe  artistic  and  culturalpractices  ofthe  people  who
inhabited this region.
Fig.4: FootprintintheEngraving&Pigmentedfootprint,Salbardi-2 RockShelter
Fig.5:Engraved footprint withpigmentationfrom Salbardi-2,RockShelter.
Fig.6:Eye-copyofSalbardi-2 RockShelter
Gaimukh shallowcupules,engravedanimalfigures,vulvas,and
pecked roundels.  Painted elements such as human
The  Gaimukh  (GMK)  group  between  latitudes
figures,  antelope,  bull,  horse  riders,  and geometric
21°24'34"Nandlongitudes77°54'57"Eencompasses
motifs  further  enrich the artistic  repertoire.  Shelter
twenty-one decorated rock shelters. These shelters feature
GMK20,orientednorth-south,measures10metersin
diverse  petroglyphs,  including  deep  and
lengthand4metersinheight.Itcontains  petroglyphs
depictingvulvaswithcentraldotsorverticallinesand
palmprints.Additionally,asingleengravedfootprint
ispresent,thoughthedetailshavebeenobscured  due  to
weathering and the passage of time (Fig. 7).
Ghodpend:
Fig.7:GaimukhGMK-20Engraved 
Rock Shelter
Agroupof12rocksheltersformedtheGhodpendgroupnamedafterthenearbyvillage.Thisgroup
ofsheltersislocatedontherightbankofaperennialriverlocallynamedMaruRiver,whichisthe  onlynatural
watersource.These rocksheltersarefound right from the bankofthe MaruRiverto the top of the hill.
The shelters have a minimum and maximum height of 398 m to 473 m respectively. The lengths of
the  shelters  are  ranging  from  30.20  m  to  3  m.  The  Ghodpend  group
hastwelveshelters,ofwhichGPD2islocatedatLat.21°25′21.9″N,Long.78°00′00″ E,hasan altitudeof460
msland faces to west direction.h a s  b o t h  p e t r o g l y p h s  i n  t h e  f o r m of deep cupules and
paintingsofdoe  and  palmimpressions,Therestof  theshelters  havepetroglyphs,represented  The
Ghorpend-2  rock  shelter  features  two  pictographic  representations  of  human  footprints  (Fig.
8).Oneofthesefootprints,depictingfivetoes,isincompleteduetotheeffectsofweathering.The fading of the
paint,  likely caused by environmental  factors,  has  obscured some of  the  details  of  this  particular
depiction.
Fig.8:Ghodpend-2Footprint inthe formofPainting
Table1:ListrocksheltersshowingFootprintsintheformofPetroglyphs/Pictographs
Sr. Pictographs/ Numberof Right/Left
Shelter Painting/Engraving
No. Petroglyphs footprints
1 Gaimukh-20 Petroglyphs Engraving 1 Left
2 Ghodpend-2 Pictographs Filled 2 BothRight
Pigmented 10 BothR i g
Engraving, h t Five
Outline, Left Five
3 Salbaldi-2 Petroglyphs FilledwithRedochrecolou
r,
Paintingwithcriss-
crossdesigns
Table2:footprintsanditsdetails fromtheGawilgarhRockShelter
Site/Foot Image Right/ Measuremen Description
Print Left t
Salbardi- Right Length-21cm Footprint,e n g r a v e d , Outlineda n d
2A Breadth- p r o m i n e n t t o e s
12cm
Salbardi- Left Length-25cm Footprinti n t h e f o r m o f e n g r a v i n
2B Breadth- 10 g  w i t h O u t l i n e .
cm
Salbardi- Left Length- Footprinte n g r a v e d , O u t l i n
2C 22cmBreadth- e d , f o u r toes.
10
cm
Salbardi- Left Length-25cm Footprint,engraved,fivetoes.
2D Breadth-9cm
Salbardi- Left Length-22cm Footprint in the form of Engraving & 
2E Breadth-8cm outlines filled with Red Ochre colour
Salbardi- Left Length-19cm The  footprint,  Engraved  filled  with
2F Breadth-9cm RedOchrecolour,Criss-crossdesigns
andsixcirculatesinsidethebody,four
toes.
Salbardi- Left Length-23cm Footprinti n t h e f o r m o f E n g r a v i n
2G Breadth- g  f i l l e d  w i t h  r e d  c o l o u r .
10cm
Salbardi- Right Length-26cm Footprint,e n g r a v e d , f i l l e d w i t h r
2H Breadth-8cm e d  o c h r e  c o l o u r .
Salbardi- Right Length-24cm Footprint,e n g r a v e d , e l o n g a t e d ,
2I Breadth-8cm f i v e toes.
Salbardi- Right Length-23cm Footprint, engravedin broad 
2J Breadth- outl ine,  f ive toes.
10cm
Ghorpend- Right Length-17cm Footprint, painting, broad, filled with 
2 Breadth- 13 red ochre colour, five toes.
K cm
Ghorpend Right Length- Footprint,p a i n t e d , f i l l e d w
L 19cmBreadth- i t h r e d  o c h r e  c o l o u r ,  
11 f i v e  t o e s .
cm
AnethnoarchaeologicalstudyoffootprintsinIndia
In  Chhattisgarh  and more  generally  in  Central  India,  where  we  not  only have quite  several
footprints and foot  representations  in  rock art  but  also examples of  their  use  during distinct
ceremonies  and  cultural  events  among  local  populations,  we  thus  have  testimonies  and
explanations about some of their uses.
JhotiorChita
ThefolkartofOdishaisboundupwithitssocialandreligiousactivities.InthemonthofMargasira  (Nov-Dec),  women
folk worship the goddess Lakshmi. It is the harvest season when grain is thrashed and stored. During this
auspicious  occasion,  floors  are  decorated  with  murals  in  white
ricepasteor(pithau).Theyarecalledjhotiorchitaandaredrawnnotmerelytodecoratethehouse,  but  to  establish a
relationship between the mystical and the material, thus being highly symbolic and meaningful. Folic painting
in  this  tradition  survives  today  in  all  its  pristine  freshness.  Throughoutthe  year,thevillage
womenperformseveral  ritualsforthefulfilmentoftheirdesires.
Foreachoccasion,aspecificmotifisdrawnonthefloororthewall.Forinstance,inLakshmipuja  a  stack  of
paddy  or  rice  sheaves  is  drawn  on  the  walls  structured  like  a  pyramid.  During  Durga
Puja,whitedotssuperimposedwithredarepaintedonthewalls.Thiscombinationofredandwhite
signifiestheworshipofShivaandShakti.TodrawaJhotiorChita,thefingersaredippedintothe rice paste and
made to
trace  out  intricate
patterns  on  the  floor
orwalls.Sometimesa
kind of brush is prepared
from  atwig
tooneendofwhicha
smallpieceofclothis
attached. This is dipped
into  the  white
ricep a s t e t o draw
patternso n t h e wall.
TheC h i t a w a s also Fig.9:JhotifromLalitpurvillageJajpurDistrict,Odisha
drawn on grain bins, on small pavilions for household deities, on the threshold of homes, on
earthen pots used during marriage, and on other auspicious occasions.
Ritualof the Bride'sArrival
During  the  wedding  ceremony,  the  act  of  making  red  footprints  holds  significant  symbolic
meaning.A t thetimeoftheGrihapraveshceremonyofthenewlywedbride,thebride'smother-in-
lawwelcomesherwithawarmreception,ofteninvolvingaplateofredliquidattheentrance.The  bride  dips
herbare feetin this liquid (Kumkum), leaving a trailof red footprints asshe entersher new home.
This act is believed to bring prosperity and good fortune to the couple.Additionally, she dips her
palms  in  turmeric  paste  and  makes  handprints  on  both  sides  of  the  entrance,  further
symbolizingblessingsandprosperity.Themother-in-lawthenperformsanAarti,aHinduritualof  worship,  for
the newlywed couple.
Fig.10FootprintofBride
ChildBirthRituals: particularly  popular  in  the  states  of
Maharashtra andKarnataka.
In India, the birth of a newborn is celebrated with a special
ritualinvolvinghandandfootimprints.Thebaby'stinyhands and feet are
dipped in a mixture of vermilion and turmeric and pressed onto a white
Lakshmipuja
cloth.  This  practice  is  believed  to
bringprosperityandgoodfortunetothefamily.Thisritualis
Fig.11Footprintofsmallchild
During  the  Diwali  festival,  particularly  in  Maharashtra,  the  practice  of  drawing  Goddess
Lakshmi'sfootprints,knownas"Padas"or"Padukas,"isasignificantritualonthedayofLakshmi  Puja.  These
footprints are traditionally
drawn at the entrance of homes using
rice  flour  paste,  vermilion,  or  other
auspicious  materials.  The  footprints
are believed to symbolize the divine
presenceofGoddessLakshmientering
thehome,bringingprosperity,wealth,
andgoodfortune.Itisthoughtthatthe Fig12:FootprintintheformofRangoliduring 
footprints  channel  positive Lakshmi puja.
energyi n t o thehome,drivingaway
negative
influences. Fig.12Footprint inthe formofRangoli
Conclusion
The footprints reported from the rockshelters at Gawilgarh Hills areof various shapes and sizes,
they are executed in pictographs as well as in petroglyphs. The shelters Salbardi and Ghorpend
have given evidence of footprint.T h e  u n i q u e  f e a t u r e  w h i c h  i s  o b s e r v e d  i s  t h e
e n g r a v i n g s  f i l l e d  w i t h ochrecolour. Footprintrepresentationisanage-oldpracticeinthe world.
InIndia,footprint-
makingisalivingtraditionthatisstillpracticedbyfamiliesonauspiciousoccasionsandfestivals.
Auspicious prints are madeon the floorof the houseentrance andsometimes on the wall.On the
occasionofDiwali,theentranceofthehouserepresentsthefeetofLakshmi,thegoddessofwealth
andprosperity.ThecontinuityofrepresentingfootprintcanbeseenintherockartoftheGawilgarh hills, right as well as
left foot are executed on the wall as well as the ceiling of the Shelter. The probable reason behind it could be to
ward off the shelter from the evil spirits. The other reason could be the number of members residing in the shelter
or  the  entry  of  a  new  member  into  the
family.Thediversetechniquesemployedincreatingthesefootprints,rangingfromdirectpainting to pigmented
engraving,  demonstrate  ancient  artists'  artistic  skill  and ingenuity.  The  size,  style,  and symbolism
variations suggest a rich tapestry of cultural beliefs and practices.
The study of footprints gives us valuable insights into prehistoric society's social, religious, and
ritualistic  aspects.  They  may  have  served  as  markers  of  territory,  symbols  of  identity,  or
representations of spiritual beliefs. Further research and analysis of these engravings can help us
unravel the mysteries of our past and deepen our understanding of human history.
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