The Nehru Era
                     The Nehru Era ( 1947-1964)
       Jawaharlal Nehru ( 1889-
1964)
Partition and Migration
 Migration of 5 million Hindus and Sikhs from West Punjab to 
India and 5.5 million Muslims from India to Pakistan.
 Partition uprooted 12.5 million people. 
Problem of Princely States
  550 Princely 
States 
‘British India’ and ‘Princely States’
 The expression "British India" shall mean all 
territories and places within Her Majesty's dominions 
which are for the time being governed by Her 
Majesty through the Governor-General of India or 
through any governor or other officer subordinate to 
the Governor-General of India.
 The expression "India" shall mean British India 
together with any territories of any native prince or 
chief under the suzerainty of Her Majesty exercised 
through the Governor-General of India, or through 
any governor or other officer subordinate to the 
Governor-General of India. – Interpretation Act, 1889
Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel ( 1875-1950)
“the problem of the States is so difficult that you alone can solve it”- Gandhi
Instrument of 
Accession 
 The Instruments of Accession 
needed the states to only 
cede defense, 
communications and foreign 
relations to India.
 Privy Purse - payment made 
to the royal families of 
erstwhile princely states as 
part of their agreements to 
first integrate with India in 
1947, and later to merge 
their states in 1949 whereby 
they lost all ruling rights. 
  
Junagarh
        August 
1947
Hyderabad
        September 1948
  
Kashmir
October 
1947
Indo-Pakistan War ( 1947-48)
 22 October 1947 the 
Pakistani armed forces 
crossed the border to help 
Muslims in Poonch.
 Raja Hari Singh made a 
plea to India for 
assistance and signed the 
Instrument of Accession 
on October 26, 1947.
 UN brokered a ceasefire 
in 1948, which came into 
effect on Jan 1, 1949.
 No plebiscite held till now.
Repatriation of Women
  50,000 women abducted
‘After the massacre was over girls were distributed like 
sweets’ 
 
Assassination of Gandhi
30 January 1948
The Hindu Right
  1915 – Hindu Mahasabha
 1925 – RSS
 1923 – Savarkar wrote 
‘Hindutva’.
‘The ideal condition under which a 
nation can attain perfect 
solidarity and cohesion would, 
other things being equal, be 
found in the case of those 
people who inhabit the land 
they adore, the land of whose 
forefathers is the also the land 
of their Gods and Angels, of 
Seers and Prophets; the scenes 
   V.D.Savarkar of whose history are also 
(1883-1966) scenes of their mythology…’
Constitution of India
26th January, 1950
 India declared a secular, 
democratic republic.
 Indian parliament has two 
houses – Rajya sabha 
( Council of States) – 250 
members
 Lok Sabha ( House of the 
People) – 552 members; 
fixed term – 5 years
 PM is selected by the 
majority party in the lower 
house.
  President is the formal 
head of the executive, 
legislature and judiciary.
B.R.Ambedkar (1891-
1956)
Scheduled Castes and Tribes
Secularism and Socialism
‘Bhagwa or the saffron colour denotes 
renunciation or disinterestedness. Our 
leaders must be indifferent to material 
gains and dedicate themselves to their 
work. The white in the centre is light, 
the path of truth to guide our conduct. 
The green shows our relation to (the) 
soil, our relation to the plant life here, 
on which all other life depends. The 
"Ashoka Chakra" in the centre of the 
white is the wheel of the law of 
dharma. Truth or satya, dharma or 
virtue ought to be the controlling 
principle of those who work under this 
flag. Again, the wheel denotes motion. 
There is death in stagnation. There is 
life in movement. India should no more 
resist change, it must move and go 
forward. The wheel represents the 
dynamism of a peaceful change.’ –.S 
Radhakrishnan 
General Elections ( 1951-52)
Congress – 364/489 seats in the Lok Sabha
Reorganization of Indian provinces
 In 1920 Gandhi had set up provincial Congress 
committees along linguistic lines. 
 Nehru resisted the linguistic reorganization of provinces 
after independence.
 Andhra leader Potti Sriramalu died after fasting for a 
separate state -  October1952. A new state of Andhra 
Pradesh created on 1 November 1953.
 States Reorganization Commission set up – 1 Nov 1956.
 India divided into 14 states on the basis of language, 
and 6 Union territories. ( At present – 28 states and 7 
UTs) 
Andhra Pradesh -  1 October 
1953
Kerala – 1 November 1956
Maharashtra and Gujarat – 1 
May 1960
Punjab, Haryana and 
Himachal Pradesh – 1 
November 1966
Goa - 1961
Economic Planning 
 1950 – A Planning Commission set up which formulated sequential 
five year plans. First – 1951-56.
 ‘ Planning should take place with a view to establishing a socialist 
pattern of society where the principal means of production are 
under social ownership and control’ – Congress ( 1955)
 Zamindari abolition – set land ceilings and vested the propriety 
rights of the large estate holders in the state governments. 
 Agrarian reform – Cooperative joint farming ( 1959), Community 
Development ( 1952), Panchayati Raj ( 1959).
 Agricultural production – 25% ( First plan) and 20% ( Second plan) , 
Industrial output – 7%. India’s national income – 4% a year. 
Foreign Policy 
Non-aligned Movement – 1961 ( Nehru, Kwame Nikrumah, Gamal 
Abdel Naseer, Sukarno and Tito). At present – 120 members in UN. 
Aim of NAM to ensure 
‘the national 
independence, 
sovereignty, territorial 
integrity and security of 
non-aligned countries" in 
their "struggle against 
imperialism, colonialism, 
neo-colonialism, racism, 
and all forms of foreign 
aggression, occupation, 
domination, interference 
or hegemony as well as 
against great power and 
bloc politics’ – Fidel 
Castro ( Address to the 
UN, 12 Oct 1979)
Sino-Indian relations 
 December 30, 1949- India recognises the 
People’s Republic of China; only the second non-
Communist country to do 
 Oct 1950-May 1951- China invades the Eastern 
Tibet provincial capital of Chamdo; captures 
governor. Compels a Tibetan delegate to sign an 
agreement accepting China’s suzerainty. 
 29 April 1954 -India and China sign Panchsheel. 
In June, Chinese premier Zhou Enlai visits India. 
Emphasizes the sanctity of Panchsheel.
Panchsheel
 Mutual respect for each 
other's territorial integrity 
and sovereignty, 
 Mutual non-aggression,
 Mutual non-interference in 
each other's internal 
affairs,
 Equality and mutual 
benefit, and
 Peaceful co-existence.
‘If these principles were recognized in the mutual relations of all countries, 
then indeed there would hardly be any conflict and certainly no war.’- 
Nehru ( Hindi-Chini Bhai Bhai)
 1959-  In January, 
Zhou Enlai spells 
out China’s claim 
to 40,000 square 
miles of Indian 
territory in Ladakh 
and the Northeast.
 On April 3, the 
Dalai Lama 
escapes from 
Lhasa. India grants 
him asylum.
 1960- On April 19, 
Nehru and Zhou 
meet in New Delhi. 
Deadlock over 
boundary issue.
  Dalai Lama with Nehru
    Sino-Indian War 
( 1962)
 A year later, China 
occupies 12,000 square 
miles in the western 
sector. India establishes 
a few border posts in 
Ladakh.
 Oct 201962- China 
attacks from Northeast to 
Ladakh. In November, it 
captures posts in the 
west near Assam
 20 November 1962 
Chinese forces defeats 
Indian army decisively 
and On Nov 21, China 
announces unilateral 
ceasefire, withdraws 20 
km behind Line of Actual 
Control. 
India After Nehru
     Lal Bahadur Shastri 
(1904-1966)
Language Crisis
  Anti-Hindi agitation, 1965 
( Tamilnadu)
Indo-Pakistan War (August-Sep1965)
The war began following Pakistan's Operation Gibraltar, which was 
designed to infiltrate forces into Jammu and Kashmir to precipitate an 
insurgency against rule by India. US mandated ceasefire after Indian 
troops defeated Pakistani forces. 
Tashkent Declaration
          Indian PM Lal Bahadur Shastri with Pakistani President Ayub 
Khan 
The Tashkent Declaration (10 January 1966) 
• Indian and Pakistani forces would pull back to their 
pre-conflict positions, pre-August lines, no later 
than February 25, 1966.
• The nations would not interfere in each other's 
internal affairs
• Economic and diplomatic relations would be 
restored
• The two leaders would work towards building good 
relations between the two countries.
Indira Gandhi ( 1917-1984)
 Monsoon failure and draught -1966
  Green Revolution– A series of research, 
development, and  technology transfer initiatives, 
occurring between the 1940s and the late 1970s, 
that increased agriculture production around the 
world, beginning most markedly in the late 1960s. 
 Led by Norman Borlaug, the ‘Father of the Green 
Revolution’, it involved the development of high-
yielding varieties of cereal grains, expansion of 
irrigation infrastructure, modernization of 
management techniques, distribution of 
hybridized seeds, synthetic fertilizers, and 
pesticides to farmers.
 1966-67 –agricultural production -26%
Indira Raj
 Elections of 1967 – Congress reduced to bare 
majority and rise of regional parties.
 Congress (I) – 1969 
 Nationalization of banks and beginning of coalition 
politics
 1970s – period of social unrest 
 Populist politics – ‘Garibi Hatao’ – ‘End poverty’
 Elections of 1971 – Congress (I) – majority in the 
Lok Sabha – second term for Indira Gandhi
 Abolition of privy purses – 1971 and nationalization 
of insurance companies and coal mines
Indo-Pakistan War (1971)
 War began on Dec 3-17 1971 between India and Pakistan
 Creation of Bangladesh
Changing face of Indian politics
 Mobilization of peasantry, backward classes, and 
Muslims for votes – introduction of populist 
authoritarianism. 
 Indira Gandhi alone mattered – ‘India is Indira and 
Indira is India’.
 Loyalists were nominated instead of popular leaders 
to check criticism.
 Populist policies led to further discontent – In 1971- 
38% of Indians lived below the level of destitution.
 Government ineffective in tackling growing 
unemployment, poverty and corruption.
Operation Smiling Buddha
India’s first nuclear test explosion at Pokhran Test Range in Rajasthan 
state on 18 May 1974. 
Total Revolution
 J.P Narayan (1902- 1979)  
Emergency (26 June 1975 -21 
March 1977)
 On 12 June 1975, 
Allahabad High 
Court declared 
Indira Gandhi's 
election to the Lok 
Sabha void on 
grounds of 
electoral 
malpractice. 
 The court ordered 
her to be removed 
from her seat in 
Parliament and 
banned from 
      
running in 
elections for six 
years. 
‘Unlike her father Jawaharlal Nehru, who preferred to deal 
with strong chief ministers in control of their legislative 
parties and state party organizations, Mrs. Gandhi set out to 
remove every Congress chief minister who had an 
independent base and to replace each of them with 
ministers personally loyal to her...Even so, stability could 
not be maintained in the states…’ – Paul Brass
Regulations of civil liberties
Right to habeas corpus – suspended 
Press censorship
Opposition parties banned and leaders arrested.
Parliamentary elections set for March 1976 
postponed. 
Sanjay Gandhi (1947-1980)
Parliament convened to enact a 
constitutional amendment 
exonerating Indira Gandhi of all 
election malpractices.
Use of populist slogans – ‘direct 
attack on poverty’; govt wanted to 
instill discipline and commitment in 
people.
Demolition of shacks, shops and 
residential quarters in Old Delhi.
Sterilization – India’s population – 
660 million by 1971.
The Janta Interlude ( 1977-79)
    Morarji Desai (1896-1995) In Office - 24 March 1977 – 
28 July 1979
 Janta Party – 295 seats to Congress’s - 154
 Janta coaltion was 
fractious and 
dominated by 
rightist Jan Sangh.
 Focus on investment 
in agriculture, and 
Gandhian emphasis 
on small-scale 
technology.
 Food grain 
production – record 
– 126 million tonnes 
in 1977-78, and 131 
million in 1978-79.
   Charan Singh (1902-1987)  
In office – 28 July 1979 – 14 January 
1980
Elections 1980
 Indira Gandhi  back 
in power  with a 
2/3rd majority.  
 Sanjay Gandhi 
killed in an air 
crash in June 23, 
1980.
 Politics of ethnicity 
and religion – use 
of communalist 
groups for political 
advantage.
Khalistan
 Sikhs  were not content  
with the creation of Punab 
in 1966 and demanded 
Chandigarh ( shared with 
Haryana) as the capital of 
Punjab alone.
 Sikhs in the diaspora – 
‘Khalistan’ ( ‘The Land of 
the Pure’) 
 On Oct 13, 1971, Jagjit 
Singh placed an 
advertisement in the New 
York Times proclaiming an 
Independent Sikh state.
 On 12 April 1980, he held a 
meeting with the Indian 
prime minister  
IndiraGandhi before Jagjit Singh Chauhan ( 1929-2007)
declaring the formation of 
"National Council of 
Khalistan”.
Militancy 
 Opposition to the Sikh regional 
party – Akali Dal led to the rise of 
a fundamentalist – 
J.S.Bhindranwale 
Took to militancy and blockaded 
the Golden Temple and refused to 
leave until a Sikh state was 
created.
       Jarnail Singh Bhindranwale  ( 1947-
1984)
Operation Blue Star (3–6 June 1984 )
Assassination of Indira Gandhi ( Oct 
31, 1984)
Anti-Sikh riots (1984)
Rajiv Gandhi (1944 –1991)
 Elections in 1984 – Largest victory 
ever to the Congress. (415 seats 
in Lok Sabha)
 He sought to accommodate non-
Congress and regional political 
parties.
 In Punjab he reached an accord 
with Akali Dal but terrorism 
continued, and Punjab was placed 
under Presidents rule in 1987 and 
emergency in 1988. 
 Violence and its repression 
continued in Punjab till early 
1990s.
Rajiv’s India 
 Opened up India to foreign 
direct investment.
 India walled off till 1980s 
and corrupt permit-issuing 
bureaucrats and inefficient 
manufactures benefitted 
from captive markets and 
the circulation of ‘black 
money’.
 Politicians wanted to keep 
India free from the taint of 
western culture. 
 Some saw capitalism as 
exploitative and selfish. 
 Regulations governing size of the 
firms were lifted; taxes on wealth 
and inheritance reduced.
 Dismantled the License Raj- 
Licenses restricting the import of 
consumer durables and high-tech 
products lifted. 
 He increased government support 
for science and technology and 
associated industries.
 In 1986, he announced a National 
Policy on Education to modernize 
and expand higher education 
programs across India. 
 He modernized the 
telecommunications industry.
Shah Bano Case (1985)
 Supreme Court ruling overturned 
the Muslim code and ordered 
maintenance as necessary. 
 Parliament of India passed a bill 
-The Muslim Women (Protection 
of Rights on Divorce) Act, 1986, 
requiring disputes amongst 
Muslims to be settled under 
Muslim law, and denied even 
utterly destitute Muslim 
divorcées the right to alimony 
from their former husbands.
Sri Lankan Conflict
 Sinhala-Tamil 
conflict escalated in 
1980s. 
 Tamils in Sri Lanka 
supported by Indian 
Tamils.
 Rajiv Gandhi first 
supported the rebel  
Tamil Tigers and 
then sent a ‘peace 
keeping’ force in 
the island to disarm 
Tamil militants. Rajiv Gandhi and Sri Lankan President 
J.R. Jayewardene sign the Indo-Sri 
 1990 – IPKF Lanka accord in Colombo on July 29, 
withdrew. 1987.
 
Rajiv Gandhi Assassination (31 Oct 
1989)