Joining Clauses
                     JOINING 
CLAUSES
Commas, semicolons, colons, and dashes can all be used to link 
two  independent clauses to produce a compound sentence. 
The nature of  the bond determines which of these markers is 
used. From a Pubrica  grammarian's perspective, there are four 
forms of bonding material—  coordinate conjunctions, adverbs, 
transitional phrases, and punctuation  alone—and the rules are:
✓IND, coordinate conjunctionIND. [A comma precedes
the  conjunction.]
✓IND; adverb [,1 [A semicolon precedes the adverb; a comma 
usually  follows the adverb.] IND; transitional expression,
✓IND. [A semicolon precedes the transitional expression; a 
comma  follows the transitional phrase.]
✓IND; IND. or IND: IND. or IND—IND. [semicolons, colons, or 
dashes  may directly join Independent causes.]
The following Proof reading paragraphs explain these rules and provide examples.
When a coordinate conjunction unites separate sentences—and, 6144 for, nor, or, so, yet—the 
conjunction is  preceded by a comma. When both sentences are brief, and there is no risk of 
readers misinterpreting which  components are linked by the conjunction, the comma may be 
removed.
Ten persons were injured in minor ways, while at least twentyresidencesalong the creek
were  inundated.
Ten persons were hurt, but all were released from the hospital by the end 
of the night.  Ten persons were hurt, and twenty residences were 
destroyed.
When an adverb joins two separate sentences (e.g., although, indeed, furthermore, 
nonetheless, thus, so), a  semicolon comes before the adverb. A comma is generally inserted 
after the adverb; however, when the  transition is not sudden, and no emphasis is intended, the 
comma may be removed after thus or hence.
The prosecution will challenge the videotape's removal; nevertheless, courts seldom 
overrule trial judges  on evidentiary concerns.
The videotape confession is crucial to the prosecution's
case; the government's entire case is  predicated on the 
defendant's confession.
Because the videotape is critical to the prosecution's case,
the prosecutor is appealing the tape's  exclusion.
Pitfall: Run-on sentences.
Only in the uncommon instance of a trio of short independent sentences with the 
same  grammatical subject
He arrived, he saw, and he conquered. Can separate clauses be united only by a 
comma? [Note,  however, that if the series has only two separate sentences, they 
cannot be connected only by a  comma: X He arrived and saw. Instead, a semicolon 
must separate these phrases; He arrived  and saw. Or He came and saw.]
Please read the instructions, fill out the form, and return it to the primary office. 
[Because the  "implied person" of an imperative is always "you," there is no subject 
shift here. A comma is  required when two clauses are in the series: X. Fill out the 
form after reading the instructions.]
APPENDING A LIST TO AN INDEPENDENT CLAUSE
When an independent clause introduces a list, a colon follows the independent clause
Pitfiill: Misuse of the colon before a  series.
As previously stated, the colon begins a series that follows an independent clause. When 
the initial  sentence contains a phrase like "the following," a colon is also used to 
introduce a series: Scorers  must bring a pencil, paper, and a timer.
In all other cases, however, no colon precedes the list.
X Scorers are asked to bring: a pencil, a pad, and a stopwatch.
X Patients should: arrive by 10 A.m., check in at the desk, and go directly to the 
laboratory.  X The advertising campaign is aimed at preteens, adolescents, and 
young adults.
In rare cases, the independent clause and the list may be reversed:
X A glass of iced tea, a peach, and an apple: his last meal was spartan and 
brief.
JOINING DEPENDENT AND INDEPENDENT CLAUSES
A dependent clause cannot function as a complete sentence on its own, therefore,  
the  capacity of the punctuator to discriminate between two types of dependent  
clauses  is  essential in conventional punctuation.
A restrictive clause is necessary for the sentence's overall meaning because 
it restricts  the meaning or scope of the independent clause.
A nonrestrictive clause is not necessary to the meaning of the sentence as a 
whole; it  might be removed without altering the meaning of the phrase.
In contrast, when the independent phrase before the because the clause is 
affirmative,  the presence or absence of a comma causes a modest shift in 
emphasis. A comma  emphasizes the claim, whereas the lack of a comma 
emphasizes the reason:
Because the minutes are only searchable by record number, all citations to 
committee  meeting minutes must contain both the five-digit record number 
and the date.
The third test findings are invalid since the procedure was not followed.
PUNCTUATING RELATIVE CLAUSES
Relativeclausesare dependent clauses that are headed by a
relative pronoun (that, who,  which), a relative adjective (whose), or a 
relative adverb (when, where).
Clauses and the restrictive-nonrestrictive distinction also apply to
them. Here are some  limiting relative clause examples:
Dogs with three legs require specialized medical attention. [This section 
limits "dogs" to  those with three legs.]
Adults who are functionally illiterate encounter several
challenges. [The whom clause  limits "adults" to functionally 
illiterate adults.]
She rejectedall of his unrealistic recommendations. [This
sentence limits "all of his  recommendations" to 
those that were unworkable.]
Here are some examples of nonrestrictive relative clauses:
Dogs are relatedto wolvesand foxes and are members of the caninefamily.
[Which clause  makes a statement applicable to all dogs?]
Individuals may file their federaltax forms electronically, which are dueon
April15. [Which  provision makes a statement accurate of all federal tax 
returns filed by individuals?]
Relative clauses that operate as appositives—that is, they rename the subject or 
add additional  information about an identifiable subject3—are always nonrestrictive.
As the example sentences show, commas separate nonrestrictive clauses, but restrictive 
clauses are  not. For example, many usage guidelines advocate using that" to signify a 
restricted clause and  reserving "which" for nonrestrictive clauses, lest the presence or 
absence of a comma is too subtle  an indication of the restrictive or nonrestrictive 
character of the relative phrase. Compare:
Senator Smith is against additional state taxes that would raise the cost of doing 
business in  California. [This section restricts "new state taxes" to those that would 
affect companies.]
Senator Jones is opposed to additional state taxes that would raise the cost of 
conducting  business in Maine. [The nonrestrictive provision specifies that all 
additional state taxes "raise the  cost of conducting business."]
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